Intelligence Test Use Bias Education Essay

news Test Use deviate educational activity EssayBias in quiz occasion occurs when deficiencies in the audition itself or the manner in which it is commitd depart in different meanings for piles earned by members of different identifiable sub classs (Ameri nates teachingal Research Association AERA, American Psychological Association, National Council on thinkment in Education, 1999, p. 74). Bias in canvass has been of interest since the origin of examination.Students referred for an judging to determine special education eligibility ar given interchangeable cognitive and achievement tests administered by a drill psychologist or educational diagnostician. These tests argon part of a comprehensive assessment which implicates measuring general clever ability, specific cognitive abilities, scholastic aptitude, oral language, and academic achievement. Data from these tests ar important in determining eligibility for special education placement.This paper exit re l ook at the literary productions that addresses the test solidus associated with wisdom test physical exertion as it is physical exertiond to assess special education disciples for initial and proceed eligibility for services. This literature review will examine race, culture and gender as it relates to test persuade. In addition, it will briefly review the literature border the meaning(a) litigation pertaining to test preconception in intelligence testing of special education students. The literature cuding with standardized testing is free and includes both(prenominal) issues of testing non-disab conduct students because many issues argon relevant to all students. removed from being a neutral practice, intelligence testing perpetuates and intensifies educational inequities in two ways through the misuse of test scores and because test bias works against the interests of students from low-income groups, racial and ethnic minorities, girls and young women, and students with disabilities (Froese-Germain, 1999). The goal of this inquiry is to come in the study theories and opinions related to intelligence test bias and issues relating to the use of these tests with esteem to overrepresentation in special education. news show Test Use semipublic Law 94-142, the Education for All Handicapped Children correspond of 1975, mandated free and remove public education for children, ranging in age among 3 and 21, who fill disabilities (Mercer, 1991) and identify eleven qualifying categories. In 1990, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) include two more categories in the definition of disabilities for a total of thirteen. As these disabilities ar categorized, testing, compartmentalisation, and placement in special education programs are necessary (de la Cruz, 1996).The particular criterion in identifying students with acquire disabilities is the discrepancy between achievement and intelligence (Mercer, 1991). Siegel (1989) disag reed with this fact and stated that IQ tests are wide and irrelevant in the qualification of learning disabilities. The use of IQ tests for the theatrical role of qualifying students for special education placement is at the forefront of the test bias controversy. Despite this fact, IQ tests continue to be apply to identify students for special education.Racial BiasJensen (1980) has published what may be the close to comprehensive review of racial bias in psychometric tests. His review, with others (Brown, Reynolds, Whi take inr, 1999 Cole, 1981) conclude that at that place was little or no evidence of bias against minority students in intelligence tests. Gutkin Reynolds (1981) agree that there is no evidence of bias with appreciate to ethnic background when interpreting IQ scores. Rock Stenner (2005) careful intelligence tests as a predictor for achievement test and came to the resembling conclusion. They found no evidence of racial bias. Brown, et al, further concl uded that the major constructs underlying intelligence tests are comparable across ethnic groups. Weiss, Prifitera, and Roid (1993) researched the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Third Edition (WISC-III Wechsler, 1991). They concluded that WISC-III scores predicted grades and achievement test scores for vexs of Hispanic-American and African-American students as hale as they did for White students. Critical surveys and critical analyses of available studies produce failed to support the hypothesis that ability tests are little valid for African-Americans than for Whites in predicting educational performance and similar results have been obtained for Hispanic-Americans (Anastasi, 1998, p. 197.) judging bias in special education is part of the big debates well-nigh race, intelligence, and inequality in society (Herrnstein Murray, 1994 Mensh Mensh, 1991 Snyderman Rothman, 1988). In the Journal of discolor Psychology, Onwuegbuzie Daley (2001) claimed that Herrnstein Murray subscribed to the hereditarian or classicist theory of intelligence. They further elaborated on the eight premises linked to this theory. Suzuki Valencia (1997) stated that although hereditarians claim that African American and Hispanic students are classified as special education payable to genetics, evidence suggests that environmental factors such as racialism and poverty are to blame.Shephard (1987) argued that item response theory explained a niggling tho significant portion of the variance in Black-White test score discrepancies. Blanton (2000) determined that there was race and class bias in intelligence testing with repute to Mexican Americans and African Americans when compared to white students. However, both(prenominal) of the bias is attributed to the unintentional racism of the testers themselves.CulturalSome of the literature addressed the issues of test bias with respect to race and ethnicity as ethnic. However, Curran, Elkerton Steinberg (1996) anal yse the use of intelligence testing with American Indian children. In this study, they use two different intelligence tests in an attempt to identify test bias in the most widely-used measure of intelligence, the WISC-III. Their study did non determine a significant difference. Therefore, no test bias was identified in the use of these tests for determining intervention needs. As the United shows population becomes more diverse and multicultural, more controversy postulateing assessment bias in special education is expected (de la Cruz, 1996). The results of studies regarding the cultural bias of standardized tests have non had unanimous outcomes.Valencia Aburto (1993) examine the use of intelligence testing with respect to Chicano students. They found that this testing played a role in ability-level grouping and tracking in elementary and indirect schools. However, no test bias was found between Chicano and white students with respect to construct validity (terms tend to be more familiar to one group than another.) This is consistent with Reynolds Gutkin (1979) study of Anglo and Chicanos students referred for psychological assessment.GenderStone Jeffrey (1991) studied the use of intelligence tests to predict achievement for males and females. Their study concluded that intelligence tests predicted achievement equally for each sex. In addition, they found the intelligence tests were not biased and not responsible for the disproportionate sum of male students in special education. Maller (2001) studied differential item functioning (DIF) with respect to males and females. Although ternion of the items she studied presented DIF, she inform that the WISC-III did not exhibit test bias. Hale Potok studied the sexual bias in the WISC-R with respect to the overrepresentation of boys in special education classes. They found that girls scored five points higher than boys. Although the results were statistically significant, they were not practically sign ificant. Interestingly, the sample was entirely white children of lower to middle socioeconomic status from a rural area.Litigation Surrounding Testing BiasThe direction of special education has been influenced by the court decisions on test bias. Test bias concern, coupled with overrepresentation in special education led to court display cases concerning minority disproportionality.The California Department of Education agreed in Diana v. State wit of Education (1970), to (a) test bilingual children in both English and their primary language (b) delete unfair verbal items from the tests (c) reevaluate all Mexican-American and Chinese students enrolled in classes for item-by-items with educable mental retardation, using nonverbal items and testing them in their aborigine language and (d) make IQ tests that incorporate Mexican-American culture and are standardized alone on the Mexican-American population (Salvia Ysseldyke, 1995).Many of the facts pointed out in Diana v. State B oard of Education found their way into P.L. 94-142 (Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975) according to MacMillan, et al, 1988. Zurcher, 1998 states that the regulations arising out of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 1990 (IDEA the reauthorization of P.L. 94-142) state that testing and military rating materials and procedures used for the purposes of evaluation and placement of children with disabilities must be selected and administered so as to not be racially or culturally sexist ( member 300.530).The case of Larry P. v. Riles (1972, 1974, 1979, 1984) brought attention to test bias. In this case, six African-American students in the San Francisco unite School District complained about the unconstitutional number of African-American students that were identified with educable mental retardation and pose in special education classes. The presiding judge in Larry P. v. Riles (1972/1974/1979/1984) agreed with this concern. Thus a court order forbid den the use of standardized IQ tests in California stating that they disproportionately deputize Black and other minority children to special education programs. Additionally, Larry P. v. Riles brought the stigma associated with classification as a predictor of educational failure.Reschly (1980) stated that the banning of IQ tests may prevent single factor discrimination, but would negatively jolt the economically disadvantaged minorities who may train a disproportionately great share of special education services. Therefore, this decision may help some students, but may also hinder the opportunities of other students. In PASE (Parents in Action on Special Education) v. Hannon (1980), the ruling was that one item on the Stanford-Binet and a total of eight items on the WISC Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children Wechsler, 1949 and WISC-R Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised Wechsler, 1974 were culturally biased against African-American students, the use of those ite ms does not visualise the tests unfair, and would not significantly affect the score of an individual taking the tests (as cited in Rothstein, 1995, p. 102). This case did not see the same results as Larry P. v. Riles because they were not the only bases for classification because multifaceted testing was also used (Turnbull, 1993). Additionally, the evaluation procedures section of the IDEA regulations outline specific procedures to address difficulties that culturally diverse students may have with language on tests States and other evaluation agencies shall insure, at a minimum, that tests and other evaluation materials are provided and administered in the childs native language or other mode of communication, unless it is clearly not feasible to do so (section 300.532).MacMillan and Balow (1991) focused on inconsistencies with the state of Californias protocol for testing African-American students which led to their conclusion that the Larry P. v. Riles case does not apply to s tudents of other backgrounds. In addition, MacMillan, Hendrick, and Watkins (1988) determined that the Diana v. State Board of Education and Larry P. v. Riles cases did not serve in the topper interest of minority students in spite of being favorable rulings. Larry P. v. Riles was revisited in 1993. The issue at that time was the discrimination against African-American students because the use of IQ tests had been previously prohibited. One of the main determinants for students being qualified as learning disabled is a significant discrepancy between ability and achievement. Without the use of an IQ test to determine ability, African-American students were not able to accomplish the criteria for learning disabilities. The judge allowed the arrangement of intelligence tests to African-American students (Salvia Ysseldyke, 1995).Standardization with love to TestingTraub (1994, p. 5) states that Standardization means that the scores of all students tested can be fairly compared, one against the other the essential requirements are that the conditions of judicial system and scoring be the same for all the students who are tested so that their scores can be compared. There is a great deal of research to support the flaws in standardized tests. sportingTest (the National Center for Fair Open Testing in Massachusetts) states that a standardized test (all students take the same test under the same conditions) consistently under-predicts the performance of women, African-Americans, pile whose first language isnt English and generally anyone whos not a intelligent test-taker. This group would clearly include those individuals receiving special education services. Froese-Germain (1999) contends that there are eight consistently identifiable reasons that standardized tests are inadequate for assessing student learning and development (1) Many types of student ability are not captured by a standardized test (2) Tests may be standardized, but students are not (3) regulate tests designed for large numbers of students are of necessity very general in nature (4) Standardized tests typically measure lower-order recall of facts and skills, and penalize higher-order thinking (5) Because standardized tests are designed to sort individuals into groups, test questions are chosen on the basis of how well they contribute to spreading out the scores, not on their centrality to the curriculum or their predictive validity (6) Test performance is shaped by individual characteristics not related to content knowledge (7) Test preparation and administration take up valuable classroom time that could be used for teaching and (8) Teachers are induced to teach to the tests rather than for learning with the result that curriculum is becoming increasingly test-driven (Meaghan Casas, 1995). Additional factors identified by Meaghan Casas (1995) include costs, inability to identify and improve ineffective school programs, and the shifting of business over curricul um to the government and the testing industry. All of these factors involve bias at some level toward the test taker.Overrepresentation in Special EducationIn 1980, Reschly reported that a great deal of attention has been inclined to enhancing the usefulness and fairness of assessment in classification/placement decisions in recent years. In 1981, Reschly stated that IQ tests were only a small part of the problem of overrepresentation in special education. In 1984, Reschly reported that although the literature stated that overrepresentation was due to bias in tests and possibly even racism, a very small percentage of minority or majority students had been placed in educable mentally retarded programs. Additionally, no significant disproportionality exists with more skanky handicaps with respect to race, social status, or gender (Reschly, 1981.) He further reported that overall, IQ test use protects many students of all races, social statuses, and genders from senseless and inappr opriate classification.ConclusionAll tests and/or testing/evaluation procedures have limited value with reference to accredited individuals or certain groups deep down the overall population. This is true particularly regarding economically deprived and/or minority group children, and when age/grade norms are used, with male children as well. (Magliocca Rinaldi, 1982). This tilt goes to the credibility of using multiple assessments to determine special education qualification, not simply standardized tests. To address the influx of current buzzwords pertaining to multi-factored assessment with regard to current evaluation and placement procedures, Magliocca Rinaldi state that there is simply a greater need to implement procedural safeguards to prevent possible discriminatory practices in this process. This would, in turn, reduce test bias concerns.Snyderman and Rothman (1987) found that the school psychologists and education specialists they surveyed believed that intelligence and standardized tests appropriately measure the significance of conquest in society. However, although Snyderman and Rothman believed these tests held significance, they also viewed the tests as racially and socioeconomically biased.These viewpoints substantiate how some tests simply do not measure what they are being used to measure. Tests do not tell us anything their data always require interpretation in the case of an individual child (Mearig, 1981).In summation, Standardized test scores are becoming the mechanism that facilitates a number of questionable education practices that contribute to education inequity. (Froese-Germain, 1999). The misuse of standardized testing is moving us away from a more inclusive model of education. (Meaghan Casas, 1995). Additionally, it accounts in large part for the disparity in achievement discover between American White students and those from minority groups, as well as between students from higher- and lower-income groups (Darling-Hammon d, 1991). Oakes (1985) concluded that misuse of standardized testing hurts low-income and minority group children, and that it not only reflects but perpetuates class and racial inequalities in the larger society. Using a method of testing already biased against certain groups of studentsonly adds insult to injury. Gardner (1983) stated that only if we expand and reformulate our view of what counts as human intelligence will we be able to set more appropriate ways of assessing it and more effective ways of educating it (p.4).