Ethical Issues in Resource Allocation Term Paper

Ethical Issues in Resource Allocation - Term Paper Example 45). During the resource allocation in medical assistance, we should be able to satisfy two main ethical criteria. I should be able to be cost effective to the limited resources that are used in the health care facility where I will make sure that I am able to utilize the available resources to maximize the health benefits of the patients that I serve. By using the cost effectiveness analysis of the available alternative health intervention measures, I should be able to consider the respective costs and benefits to determine the efficiency of these intervention measures. The ethical issue here is deciding whether, after I take such considerations in to account, I will be able to give the same quantity of the health benefits in the future. I will manage to use the CEA to be able to analyze the benefits of using such interventions and be able to help the patients in the future. An outstanding example is where I have to decide on using a program that might save one hundred people now or decide on another that will help save two hundred people at a later date. The second program will save a lot of people, but on applying a three percent discount rate to the lives that will be saved in the future; they will be an equivalent to 78 of the lives that can be saved at the moment. Hence, I will choose to use the first program that will save the one hundred people at the moment (George 56). The ethical requirements are like expectations which I am supposed to achieve on a regular basis in this profession. I have to use the ethical principles to depict the greatest moral standards and behavior in the health care profession. Whenever I face any form of ethical dilemma, I always find a method to enable me to consult and get guidance from the people who work with me. They have guided me into being able to develop my professional skills in the health care sector. I have managed to create healthy relationships with my patients that are therapeutic in nature. The medic assistant needs to follow the ethical conduct regulations in order to become a successful professional in the health care sector. He /she has to work with other health care service providers in order to be able to treat and provide quality health care services to patients. Medical assistants are required to have good, quality and moral values that will oversee the values succeeding in the health care sector. Some of the moral values that I have had to use included the following: first of all, I have had to take my primary responsibility to being the health, welfare, safety, and the dignity of all the patients whom I help. Secondly, I have had to promote and appreciate the diversity value. Thirdly, I have had to treat every person that seeks the health care attention equally without having to be bias to anyone. This has helped foster my dignity, and it has created a level of trust in my patients. Fourthly, I have had to create and uphold my levels of confidence in the course of health care pro vision and all that pertains to the practice. Fifthly, I have had to assess my personal ability and any kind of limitations; by doing this, I see where I make mistakes and am able to correct these mistakes and change for the better. Sixthly, I have been able to add the level of my knowhow and practicing skills so that I will be able to create and achieve all forms of health care practices.

Pavement Design Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Pavement Design - Term Paper Example The Structural Number is a value that applies to the overall  pavement structure, but for a complete design it is a prerequisite to get from this value to the individual layer thicknesses. This is handled using an equation of the type shown: and can be adapted to any number of pavement layers, since each expression (such as a2D2M2) in the formula corresponds to a single layer, so that the variables in the expression correspond to the characteristics of that layer. The subscript number used in the expression simply indicates which layer is meant, with the numbering beginning at the top of the pavement structure. The variables represent the following: The layer and drainage coefficients are values that should reflect characteristics of the material used to construct that pavement layer. The thicknesses of the individual layers are effectively what is used to design equation, and the Structural Number, to figure out. Since the layer coefficient represents the strength of the material, this is the primary variable that factors in the type of material to use for each layer. For design purposes, layer coefficients are typically determined empirically based on the performance of the material. Agencies often set specific layer coefficient values for commonly used materials as a standard design policy. Some typical layer coefficient values are:Hot mix asphalt – 0.44, road mix (low stability) – 0.20, aggregate base – 0.13, engineered fill – 0.10 Since the layer coefficient can be affected by material properties as well as the position of the layer in which the material will be used, in some cases different values might be appropriate for local conditions. A drainage coefficient is a value assigned to a pavement layer that represents its relative loss of strength due to  drainage characteristics  and exposure to moisture saturation. Layers that

Cultural Anthropology Essay Example for Free

Cultural Anthropology Essay I have read and understand the section in the syllabus (page 6) relating to IWU’s Honesty/Cheating Policy. By affixing this statement to the title page of my homework submission, I am certifying that I have not cheated or plagiarized in the process of completing this assignment. If it is found that cheating and/or plagiarism did take place in the writing of this paper I understand the possible consequences of the act which could include expulsion from Indiana Wesleyan University. The results of any form of bullying is troubling, the effects on victims and those family members in some cases lead to catastrophic outcomes or a change in which a victim conducts his or her life. In any case, to change the way you live or stop participating in your favorite activities because of who is waiting for you down the street or in school is the best way to fuel and promote the negative behavior of any bully. All bullies feed off of one factor, fear. If they know they control your lifestyle and places fear or shame in your heart then they have accomplishes just what they have been trying to do, control you. What is cyber bullying? Cyber bullying is a new form of aggressions sought out by those individuals looking to embarrass or harm the victim across the World Wide Web by use of social networks, blogs, email, and other devises use for internet reading and sharing. The outcome of this form of bullying is the same as physical bullying, both with their share of outcomes with negative impact. The anthropology process of this study comprised of various groups of young adult grouped by age, gender and sexuality. The number of participants was 20,000 students from the second wave of the Metro West Adolescent Health Survey. This survey is important because it address one of the main areas concerning all parents of victim child suicide. Here are some facts â€Å"15. 8% of students reported cyber bullying, and 25. 9% reported school bullying in the past 12 months. The overlap between cyber bullying and school bullying was substantial: 59. 7% of cyber bullying victims were also school bullying victims, and 36. 3% of school bullying victims was also cyber bullying victims. Non-heterosexually identified youths were far more likely than were heterosexually identified youths†. What is most alarming with these facts are the following. 37. 8% of victims of either cyber or school bully committed self-injury to themselves, 15. 2% had suicide attempts, 30% had thoughts of suicide while 6. 6% suffer an attempt of suicide with medical treatment. It appears that once a child become victim of bullying he/she fails to speak to adults, thus leading to the child feelings of despair that could trigger an emotional psychological breakdown. It becomes increasingly important for parents to play a strong role in their child’s life. We have to become aware of the surroundings that our children choose to associate as hobbies, friends and media networking. Also communication is a strong asset, share with them that it is ok to tell an adult if they are bullied or threaten in any manner. Sexual orientation plays a role in traditional and cyber bullying as well. It statics show that if a child lives a homosexual lifestyle or is bisexual they have a higher risk at becoming victims to both cyber and traditional bullying. The thoughts of suicide also are a bit higher within this lifestyle. Regardless of the ethnicity the numbers are staggering. The authors in this article have several main points that they want to stress, the first of many is to bring about awareness to this world-wide epidemic of bulling that’s taking the lives of our youth. Secondly, to focus on which age groups are mostly the centers of attacks. Thirdly, to find a solution to combat the practices of bullying in our schools and neighborhoods, their intentions are to educate the general public. They wanted to depict differences between cyber bullying and its relationship to school bullying. Understanding the differences between the two could help facilitate and developed a school prevention systems that could aid those that are victimize of this despicable act of behavior. When taking a look at the length of investigative approaches performed by the authors that conduct this study, it obvious to learn of the great effort put forth to gather such information. In the field of anthropology all cultural anthropologists rely on one scientific method for gathering information while studying cultural, fieldwork. Field work is the characteristic of all the anthropological sub disciplines and is a main source for gathering information that deal with different cultures and ethnicities. To have hands on approach and the study of any giving topic the foundationally foot work starts with an investigative approach in all subject matter, ultimately ending with a solid conclusion that is not just opinionated but scientific truth. In conclusion, the authors of the article try to identify a world-wide epidemic that is affecting our children’s social stability and academic performance. By researching the effects of bullying (rather cyber or school-yard) it allows parents to absorb the harsh realities of what their child could endure as an adolescent under extreme pressure. Children of all ages are taking their own lives as a result of being out-casted by peers of the same group, neighborhood, age, sex, and ethnicity. The real question is why? How far does a child have to be push before his/her mind is made up to commit suicide? We as parents need to beware and actively involved with all social activities and friends that our children consider part of their lives.

Predicting Individual differences in Mindfulness

Predicting Individual differences in Mindfulness Predicting Individual differences in Mindfulness: The role of Trait Anxiety, Openness and Parental Nurturance  ­Ã‚ ­Ã‚ ­Ã‚ ­ Abstract Mindfulness is a way of paying attention, intentionally and without judgement to the present moment. Mindfulness training has shown impressive outcomes in a number of areas such as depression and pain reduction; however, the literature has failed to account for natural, individual differences in levels of mindfulness. This research provides an exploration of the variables: Trait Anxiety, Openness to Experience and Parental Nurturance and their ability to predict individual differences in Mindfulness. 123 participants each completed four questionnaires: The State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) was used to assess Trait Anxiety, the NEO-FFI was used to measure Openness to Experience, the Parental Nurturance Inventory was used to measure Parental Nurturance, and Mindfulness was assessed using the Freiburg Mindfulness Inventory (FMI). Partially consistent with the predictions, Trait Anxiety was shown to negatively predict Mindfulness, Openness to Experience and Parental Nurturance where n ot as strong predictors of Mindfulness. Key Terms: Mindfulness, Trait Anxiety, Openness, Parental Nurturance. Introduction Mindfulness is a way of paying attention, intentionally and without judgement to the present moment. The practice of Mindfulness originated in East India and is at the heart of Buddhist meditation. According to Kabat-Zinn (1994, 4) ‘This kind of attention nurtures greater awareness, clarity, and acceptance of present-moment reality’. A lack of or reduced awareness to the present-moment, however, has the opposite affect which results in fear driven ‘unconscious and automatic actions and behaviours’. Continuing in this pattern of diminished awareness results in erosion to ones confidence and hinders the possibility of a life of satisfaction, health and happiness (Kabat-Zinn, 1994). Traditionally, Mindfulness was viewed as a spiritual practice, heavily steeped in Buddhism; however, more recently this practice has been widely encouraged in the western society (Baer, 2003). According to Baer (2003) there are two main Mindfulness training programmes namely the Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction Programme and Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy. Other therapies such as Dialectical Behaviour Therapy, Acceptance and Commitment Therapy and Relapse Prevention incorporate principles of Mindfulness into the programme. Most Mindfulness training programmes run for a serious of 8-10 weeks, with a one day a week group meeting which is held for approximately 2 hours. Clients are also required to do homework session including 45 minutes per day, 6 days a week. Evidence suggests that Mindfulness-based training intervention is effective. Research indicates that Mindfulness-based training is effective in working with borderline personality disorder, mood disorders, pain, generalised anxiety disorder, stress, alcohol and substance abuse, and eating disorders (Baer, 2003; Roemer, 2002; Williams, Teasdale, Segal, Soulsby, 2000; Witkiewitz, Marlatt, Walker, 2005; Woodman, Noyes, Black, Schlosser, Yagia, 1999; Zettle Rains, 1989). Without any way of accurately, and objectively measuring levels of Mindfulness, positive findings were attributed to the training alone. Brown and Ryan (2003), however, proposed that individual differences may account for differences in levels of Mindfulness. The introduction of a measure for Mindfulness has made room for researchers to explore this proposal in greater depth. The present study attempts to explore a question: to what extent do individual differences influence levels of Mindfulness. The literature highlights three such individual differences that may be of interest: Trait Anxiety, Openness to Experience and Parental Nurturance. The experience of anxiety is one that is familiar to most people; and Kaplan and Sadock (1998) describe the related symptoms as including an uneasy feeling followed by automatic responses such as headaches, perspiring and tightness in the chest. Trait anxiety, as apposed to state anxiety, is a persistent and does not wane in less stressful times. These researchers identify anxiety as having two components, namely awareness to the physiological sensations and awareness to being afraid. These experiences often lead to feelings of embarrassment, and in order to feel justified for the anxiety, people tend to focus on certain, conforming aspects of the environment and overlooking others. As a result of this bias to attention, a person is unable to experience the presence as a whole. Trait Anxiety is therefore expected to have an inverse relationship with Mindfulness. Openness to Experience is one of the five main personality domains and is described by McCrae and John (1992) as encompassing such things as imagination, aesthetic sensitivity, awareness of inner feelings, an inclination towards variety, and intellectual curiosity. Individuals who score high on this scale tend to be motivated to discover their environment, ask questions and have a readiness to question authority. As such, it is hypothesized that a high level of Openness to Experience would be a positive predictor of Mindfulness, since these individuals approach their environment with awareness, which is not clouded by judgment. The manner in which a parent responds to their child in the first years of his or her life has a far reaching impact on their adult life, affecting their relationships, both intimate, social and professional, how they interpret information given to them from the environment and whether or not they view the world as a safe place, and whether or not people are trust worthy (Fonagy, Gergely, Jurist, Target, 2005). According to this theory of attachment, Parental Nurturance is also an important factor in determining an individual’s ability to contain his or her own emotions. From this, it is hypothesised that positive Parental Nurturance will be a good predictor of Mindfulness as individuals are able to be present in their environment in a trusting, non-judgmental way. The present study explores the predictive value of these variables for increased levels of Mindfulness. In light of the literature, it is thought that a low level of Trait Anxiety will have an inverse relationship with Mindfulness, and that Openness to Experience and Parental Nurturance will be positive predictors of Mindfulness. Method Design and Measures For the purpose of the present research study, a cross-sectional, correlational design was adopted. Information was thereby elicited from people in a number of different conditions, namely Trait Anxiety, Openness to Experience and Parental Nurturance (independent variables), and the dependent variable of Mindfulness. The following measures where used: Spielberger’s (1983) State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) was used to assess Trait component of Anxiety. The STAI is designed to measure and distinguish between anxiety as a trait or as a state. Trait anxiety is a relatively stable personality trait and is marked by feelings of apprehension and tension, which is heightened in times of perceived threat. State anxiety, however, fluctuates and is heightened at times of stress and low in less stressful periods. This is a self-report, four-point rating scale, including 20 statements that ask people to describe how they feel at a particular moment. A high score is indicative of a high level of Trait Anxiety. Costa and McCrae’s (1991) NEO-FFI was used to assess Openness to Experience. This is a 60-item version of the NEO PI-R, which measures only the five factors of adult personality, however for the purpose of this study, only the twelve-item scale assessing Openness was employed. This is measure makes use of a five-point rating scale, where participants demonstrated the degree of agreement with given statements. A high score on this scale is indicative of a high level of Openness. Buri’s (1989) Parental Nurturance scale was used to assess this component of the study. This is a self-report, five-point Likert scale, where participants are required to describe positive and negative aspects of the parental nurturance they received. This is repeated twice, once for information pertaining to the mother and the second time for information relating to the father’s nurturance. An average of these combined scores is used as a final result, with a high score indicative of elevated levels of Parental Nurturance. Mindfulness was measured using the FMI (Walach, Buchheld, Buttenmuller, Kleinknecht, Schmidt, 2006). This is a short scale, 14-item, self-report measure, requiring participants to indicate their degree of agreement with a given, mindfulness direct statement. A high score on this measure is indicative of elevated levels of Mindfulness. Procedures, Participants and Ethics Participants were purposively sampled and personally invited by written invitation to participate in this study. Of the initial 153 participants, 123 were included in the present study. A detailed outline of the nature and details of the study, including a description of what would be required of them was provided in the initial invitation. Participants were assigned to one of three separated testing groups. On receiving consent, participants were handed a package of four questionnaires (STAI, NEO-FFI, Parental-Nurturance Inventory, FMI). Each questionnaire was marked with separate instructions for completion. Each participant completed the pack of questionnaires in the same order. Results Reliability of Measures A reliability analysis of the questionnaires was conducted, yielding satisfactory results indicating that the participants responded in a consistent manner to the questionnaires. The reliability coefficients were as follows: Mindfulness (ÃŽ ± = .78); Trait Anxiety (ÃŽ ± = .88); Openness (ÃŽ ± = .73); Parental Nurturance – mother (ÃŽ ± = .96); Parental Nurturance – father (ÃŽ ± = .96). Descriptive Statistics A descriptive analysis of the data obtained across the variables of Mindfulness, Trait Anxiety, Openness and Parental Nurturance is given in Table 1. As shown, the mean score for openness was 3.62, with a standard deviation (SD) of .55. The total results on the measure of Trait Anxiety yielded a mean score of 2.19, with a SD of .59. The mean score for Parental Nurturance was 3.71, with a SD of .79, and the Mindfulness mean is indicated at 2.69, with a SD of .46. Table 1: Presentation of Mean Scores and Standard Deviations from the Measures Employed to assess Openness to Experience, Trait Anxiety, Parental Nurturance and Mindfulness. Inferential Statistics The correlational analysis undertaken to explore the relationship between the dependent variable, Mindfulness, and the independent variables, Openness, Trait Anxiety and Parental Nurturance. These results are presented in Table 2. A significant, positive correlation was found between Mindfulness and Openness (r = .02, df = 3, p Table 2. Correlational Analysis Presenting the Relationship between Mindfulness and the Variables: Openness, Trait Anxiety and Parental Nurturance. * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (1-tailed). ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (1-tailed). An analysis of the degree of variance (ANOVA) yielded F=19.496, which is indicative of a statistically insignificant effect. Therefore, there is no relationship between the constant and the independent variables as a group. With this information in hand, a regression was undertaken to see what differences exist in each group. These results are given in Table 3. Table 3. Presentation of the Individual Differences between Variables. From this it is clear that Trait Anxiety has the strongest, inverse relationship with Mindfulness, which is a negative relationship. Therefore, lower levels of Trait Anxiety are a strong predictor for Mindfulness. Openness is shown to be an insignificant predictor of Mindfulness, and Parental Nurturance is approaching significance. 4. Discussion The results of this study partially meet the predictions made. Openness to Experience and Parental Nurturance were not demonstrated as positive predictors of Mindfulness, although Parental Nurturance bordered on significance. Trait Anxiety was found to be a negative predictor of Mindfulness, where the lower the level of Trait Anxiety, the higher the level of Mindfulness. These results can be explained in terms of awareness to the environment. Individuals having a high level of Trait Anxiety are unable to be present in the moment since they are subject to cognitive bias, which inhibits the information they are able to process. According to Harvey, Watkins, Mansell and Shafran (2004) individuals with high levels of anxiety have explicit memory bias for concern-relative information. These authors make further reference to the Cognitive Avoidance Theory of Worry, and describe how people who worry excessively have, as a result reduced their awareness of aversive imagery, as well as physio logical and emotional responses, which inhibits emotional processes. Since individuals with high levels of Trait Anxiety are working hard at suppressing unpleasant experiences in terms of physiological, emotional and psychological responses, they are reducing their ability to be Mindful. A key component of Mindfulness is the ability to absorb the environment as a whole, without judgement and being completely present in the moment. Individuals with low levels of Trait Anxiety are able to process their environment without bias, they are not fearful and ashamed, and are not required to be vigilant and suspicious of the environment and others. The qualities are similar to those describe in the description of Mindfulness, and should therefore yield similar outcomes of ‘greater awareness, clarity, and acceptance of present-moment reality’ Kabat-Zinn (1994, 4). From this study, it can be said that the variable of Trait Anxiety is a good predictor of the individual differences in Mindfulness. Further research into the predictive value of other personality variables may aid in the understanding of this phenomenon. Bibliography Baer, R.A. (2003). Mindfulness training as a clinical intervention: A conceptual and empirical review. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 10(2), 125-143. Brown, K.W. Ryan, R.M. (2003). The benefits of being present: Mindfulness and its role in psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(4), 822-848. Buri, J. R. (1989). Self-esteem and appraisals of parental behavior. Journal of Adolescent Research, 4, 33-49. ** Costa, P. McCrae, R. (1991). The NEO-Five Factor Inventory – Form S. Odessa, Florida: Psychological Assessment Resources. Fonagy, P., Gergely, G., Jurist, E.L. Targer, M. (2005). Affect Regulation, Mentalization, and the Development of the Self. London: Karnac. Harvey, A., Watkins, E., Mansell, W. Shafran, R. (2004). Cognitive Behavioural Processes Across Psychological Disorders: A transdiagnostic approach to research and treatment. Oxford University Press. Kabat-Zinn, J. (1994). Wherever You Go, There You Are: Mindfulness meditation for everyday life. NY: Piatkus. McCrae, R.R. John, O.P. (1992). An introduction to the five-factor model and its implications. Journal of Personality, 60, 175-215. Roemer, L. (2002). Expanding our conceptualization of and treatment for generalized anxiety disorder: Integrating mindfulness/acceptance-based approaches with existing cognitive-behavioral models. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 9(1), 54-68. ** Spielberger, C. (1983). State-Trait Anxiety Inventory for adults. Redwood City, California: Mind Garden Walach, H., Buchheld, N., Buttenmuller V., Kleinknecht, N. Schmidt, S. (2006). Measuring mindfulness – the Freiburg Mindfulness Inventory (FMI). Personality and Individual Differences, 40, 1543-1555. Williams, J.M.G., Teasdale, J.D., Segal, Z.V. Soulsby, J. (2000). Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy reduces over-general autobiographical memory in formerly depressed patients. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109, 150-155. Witkiewitz, K., Marlatt, G.A. Walker, D. (2005). Mindfulness-Based relapse prevention for alcohol and substance use disorders. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy: An International Quarterly, 19(3), 211-228. Woodman, C.L., Noyes, R., Black, D.W., Schlosser, S. Yagia, S.J. (1999). A five year follow-up study of generalized anxiety disorder and panic disorder. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 187, 3-9. Zeattle, R.D. Rains, J.C. (1989). Group cognitive and contextual therapies in treatment for depression. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 45, 436-445. ** References borrowed from given notes.

Affirmative Action Essay -- Affirmative Action Essays

After you graduate from college, you will be putting in your application for a job that you went to college for. Even though you might be the most qualified for the job you still might not obtain the position. Affirmative Action sometimes causes this because companies have to hire a certain number of minorities relative to the size of the company. This means that if there are no minority citizens available, immigrants who aren’t even US citizens can take the position. This is why Affirmative Action should be readjusted, because it is helping immigrants instead of the people it was meant for, American citizens. The fact is that the current Affirmative Action plan is helping immigrants more than it is helping the American people. For instance, millions of immigrants and foreign visitors are eligible for, and many are actually using, Affirmative Action benefits to grab a head start of US born minorities because they do not have enough US minorities to fill the positions. In effect, many of today’s immigrants are coming to this country and moving right to the head of the line. James Robb, a Senior Analyst of the The Social Contract, a quarterly journal and the author of the study, â€Å"Affirmative Action For Immigrants: The Entitlement Nobody Wanted† came up with a great example of how immigrants are using affirmative action to there advantage. He states, â€Å"Of all US science doctorates awarded in 1993, forty-six percent went to foreigners. There were ten science PhD’s awarded to non-citizen Asians to every one awarded to a US Asian† (Robb). It doesn’t en d there, because after they receive their PhD’s many immigrants will stay in the US to take jobs. This is bad for American citizens who have their PhD’s because they struggle to find jobs, many of which are already taken by people who aren’t even U.S. citizens. It is a big deal that immigrants are using Affirmative Action to their advantage. There is something wrong with giving opportunities to non-US citizens over US citizens. Yes this is a big deal because if you put non-citizens and US citizens in the same job market, you are taking away opportunities from people that have been living here their entire lives. This creates a feeling of hatred between US and non-US citizens, which is the last thing we need. In contrast, there is nothing wrong with giving immigrants job opportunities because this is America, the lan... ...tive action would count if and only if they are minority citizens, which would give American citizens a better chance of finding a job because immigrants wouldn’t be accepted towards the number of minorities companies have to hire. After this subparagraph would be added, the president would then have to sign an executive order stating that although contractors may hire immigrants, only US born minorities would count toward meeting the affirmative action set goals. I think this would then take care of the non-citizen immigrants hiring problem. By reading the facts and opinions of this paper, I believe you will understand that this is a problem that needs to be faced. Affirmative Action is not pulling its weight in what it was initially created to do. Steps need to be taken to right this wrong, so people who deserve a shot, in turn receive a shot. Works Cited Robb, James S. â€Å"Affirmative Action For Immigrants: The Entitlement Nobody Wanted† 1996. http://pwz.netcom~jimrobb/NR-article.html(July,1996) Skerry, Peter. â€Å"Borders and quotas: immigration and the affirmative-action state Available from http://humanitas.ucsb./cgi-bin/mfs/11docs/skerry.html?99#mfs

My Experience with Technology

I have never really thought about how much I depend of technology. We got our first family computer when I was about 9 years old. At the time my brother was a computer geek (still is) and he would go buy the computer books that had programs in them where you had to type everything out to get a game on the computer to play. So when I would help or when he was teaching me, we would mix some of the programs up and see if we could come up with anything. Then it was to BBS’. That opened a whole new world!We could meet people online without actually meeting them. Now its becoming more and more complexed.. Now there is so many programs out there it’s hard to keep up. I have taught myself just about everything I do on the computer. I know Microsoft Word, Windows, Adobe reader and those are just the ones I can remember off hand.. I am pretty comfortable learning new programs and look forward to it. At this time the only one I can think of that my hinder me is Excel. Since I have only used it once I am not 100% comfortable with it yet.But I will be by the time this class is over. While I worked as a manager at a pet store we used a program called Campbell, it would keep track of the employees hours, what we sold in the store and everything in between. While I was at Staples I was learning all kinds of programs and applications. At this time the only thing that comes to mind that I would have a concern about would be not being able to ask a question and getting an answer right away. I look forward to this class and learning new applications that I can use on the computer.

Histology Review Supplement

Histology Review Supplement The slides in this section are designed to provide a basic histology review related to topics introduced in the PhysioEx lab simulations and in your anatomy and physiology textbook. From the PhysioEx main menu, select Histology Tutorial. The opening screen should appear after a few seconds. The Sort by menu is located at the top left. Click on the white drop-down menu and select â€Å"Histology Review† from the list. You will note that the slides in the histology module are grouped in the following folders: Skeletal muscle slides Nervous tissue slides Endocrine tissue slides Cardiovascular tissue slides Respiratory tissue slides Digestive tissue slides Renal tissue slides Select the group of slides you wish to view, and then refer to the relevant worksheet in this section for a step-by-step tutorial. For example, if you would like to review the skeletal muscle slides, click on the Skeletal muscle slides folder, and then turn to the next page of this lab manual for the worksheet entitled Skeletal Muscle Tissue Review to begin your review. You will have the option of viewing slides with or without labels by clicking the On/Off buttons at the bottom left of the viewer. Since the slides in this module have been selected for their relevance to topics covered in the PhysioEx lab simulation, it is recommended that you complete the worksheets along with a related PhysioEx lab. For example, you might complete the Skeletal Muscle Tissue worksheet right before or after your instructor assigns you Exercise 2, the PhysioEx lab simulation on Skeletal Muscle Physiology. For additional histology review, turn to page 121. 23 Skeletal Muscle Tissue Review From the PhysioEx main menu, select Histology Review Supplement. When the screen comes up, click Select an Image Group. From Group Listing, click Skeletal muscle slides. To view slides without labels, click the Labels Off button at the bottom right of the monitor. Click slide 1. Skeletal muscle is composed of extremely large, cylindrical multinucleated cells called myofibers. The nuc lei of the skeletal muscle cell (myonuclei) are located peripherally just subjacent to the muscle cell plasmalemma (sarcolemma). The interior of the cell is literally filled with an assembly of contractile proteins (myofilaments) arranged in a specific overlapping pattern oriented parallel to the long axis of the cell. Click slides 2, 3. Sarcomeres are the functional units of skeletal muscle. The organization of contractile proteins into a regular end-to-end repeating pattern of sarcomeres along the length of each cell accounts for the striated, or striped, appearance of skeletal muscle in longitudinal section. Click slide 4. The smooth endoplasmic reticulum (sarcoplasmic reticulum), modified into an extensive network of membranous channels that store, release, and take up the calcium necessary for contraction, also functions to further organize the myofilaments inside the cell into cylindrical bundles called myofibrils. The stippled appearance of the cytoplasm in cells cut in cross section represents the internal organization of myofilaments bundled into myofibrils by the membranous sarcoplasmic reticulum. What is the functional unit of contraction in skeletal muscle? Click slide 5. The neural stimulus for contraction arises from the axon of a motor neuron whose axon terminal comes into close apposition to the muscle cell sarcolemma. Would you characterize skeletal muscle as voluntary or involuntary? Name the site of close juxtaposition of an axon terminal with the muscle cell plasmalemma. Skeletal muscle also has an extensive connective tissue component that, in addition to conducting blood vessels and nerves, becomes continuous with the connective tissue of its tendon. The tendon in turn is directly continuous with the connective tissue covering (the periosteum) of the adjacent bone. This connective tissue continuity from muscle to tendon to bone is the basis for movement of the musculoskeletal system. What is the name of the loose areolar connective tissue covering of an individual muscle fiber? endomysium The perimysium is a collagenous connective tissue layer that groups several muscle fibers together into bundles called fascicles . the sacromeres What are the two principal contractile proteins that compose the functional unit of contraction? Which connective tissue layer surrounds the entire muscle and merges with the connective tissue of tendons and aponeuroses? epimysium actin and myosin What is the specific relationship of the functional unit of contraction to the striated appearance of a skeletal muscle fiber? the repeating pattern of the sacromeres organized end to end 124 Histology Review Supplement Nervous Tissue Review From the PhysioEx main menu, select Histology Review Supplement. When the screen comes up, click Select an Image Group. From Group Listing, click Nervous tissue slides. To view slides without labels, click the Labels Off button at the bottom right of the monitor. Nervous tissue is composed of nerve cells (neurons) and a variety of support cells. Click slide 1. Each nerve cell consists of a cell body (perikaryon) and one or more cellular processes (axon and dendrites) extending from it. The cell body contains the nucleus, which is typically pale-staining and round or spherical in shape, and the usual assortment of cytoplasmic organelles. Characteristically, the nucleus features a prominent nucleolus often described as resembling the upil of a bird’s eye (â€Å"bird’s eye,† or â€Å"owl’s eye,† nucleolus). Click slide 2. The cytoplasm of the cell body is most often granular in appearance due to the presence of darkly stained clumps of ribosomes and rough endoplasmic reticulum (Nissl bodies/ Nissl substance). Generally, a single axon arises from the cell body at a pale-staining region (axon hillock), devoid of Nissl b odies. The location and number of dendrites arising from the cell body varies greatly. Axons and dendrites are grouped together in the peripheral nervous system (PNS) to form peripheral nerves. What is the primary unit of function in nervous tissue? Click slide 5. Because Schwann cells are aligned in series and myelinate only a small segment of a single axon, small gaps occur between the myelin sheaths of adjacent contiguous Schwann cells. The gaps, called nodes of Ranvier, together with the insulating properties of myelin, enhance the speed of conduction of electrical impulses along the length of the axon. Different support cells and myelinating cells are present in the central nervous system (CNS). What is the general name for all support cells within the CNS? neuroglial cells Name the specific myelinating cell of the CNS. Oligodendrocyte In the PNS, connective tissue also plays a role in providing support and organization. In fact, the composition and organization of the connective tissue investments of peripheral nerves are similar to those of skeletal muscle. Click slide 3. Each individual axon or dendrite is surrounded by a thin and delicate layer of loose connective tissue called the endoneurium (not shown. ) The perineurium, a slightly thicker layer of loose connective tissue, groups many axons and dendrites together into bundles (fascicles). The outermost epineurium surrounds the entire nerve with a thick layer of dense irregular connective tissue, often infiltrated with adipose tissue, that conveys blood and lymphatic vessels to the nerve. There is no connective tissue component within the nervous tissue of the CNS. What is the relationship of the endoneurium to the myelin sheath? neuron Name the pale-staining region of the cell body from which the axon arises. nucleus The support cells of the nervous system perform extremely important functions including support, protection, insulation, and maintenance and regulation of the microenvironment that surrounds the nerve cells. Click slides 3, 4. In the PNS, support cells surround cell bodies (satellite cells) and individual axons and dendrites (Schwann cells). Schwann cells, in particular, are responsible for wrapping their cell membrane jelly-roll style around axons and dendrites to form an insulating sleeve called the myelin sheath. enclosed and protects Histology Review Supplement 125 Endocrine Tissue Review From the PhysioEx main menu, select Histology Review Supplement. When the screen comes up, click Select an Image Group. From Group Listing, click Endocrine tissue slides. To view slides without labels, click the Labels Off button at the bottom right of the monitor. antrum, except for a thin rim of granulosa cells (corona radiata) that encircles the oocyte and a pedestal of granulosa cells (cumulus oophorus) that attaches the oocyte to the inner wall of the antrum. Which cells of the ovarian follicle secrete estrogen? Thyroid Gland The thyroid gland regulates metabolism by regulating the secretion of the hormones T3 (triiodothyronine) and T4 (thyroxine) into the blood. Click slide 1. The gland is composed of fluid-filled (colloid) spheres, called follicles, formed by a simple epithelium that can be squamous to columnar depending upon the gland’s activity. The colloid stored in the follicles is primarily composed of a glycoprotein (thyroglobulin) that is synthesized and secreted by the follicular cells. Under the influence of the pituitary gland, the follicular cells take up the colloid, convert it into T3 and T4, and secrete the T3 and T4 into an extensive capillary network. A second population of cells, parafollicular (C) cells (not shown), may be found scattered through the follicular epithelium but often are present in the connective tissue between follicles. The pale-staining parafollicular cells secrete the protein hormone calcitonin. Why is the thyroid gland considered to be an endocrine organ? Uterus Click slides 4, 5, 6. The uterus is a hollow muscular organ with three major layers: the endometrium, myometrium, and either an adventitia or a serosa. The middle, myometrial layer of the uterine wall is composed of several layers of smooth muscle oriented in different planes. Click slide 6. The innermost (nearest the lumen) endometrial layer is further divided functionally into a superficial functional layer (stratum functionalis) and a deep basal layer (stratum basalis). Click slide 4. A simple columnar epithelium with both ciliated and nonciliated cells lines the surface of the endometrium. The endometrial connective tissue features an abundance of tubular endometrial glands that extend from the base to the surface of the layer. During the proliferative phase of the menstrual cycle, shown here, the endometrium becomes thicker as the glands and blood vessels proliferate. Click slide 5. In the secretory phase, the endometrium and its glands and blood vessels are fully expanded. Click slide 6. In the menstrual phase, the glands and blood vessels degenerate as the functional layer of the endometrium sloughs away. The deep basal layer (stratum basalis) is not sloughed and will regenerate the endometrium during the next proliferative phase. Which layer of the endometrium is shed during the menstrual phase of the menstrual cycle? it secrets a horomone What hormone secreted by the pituitary gland controls the synthesis and secretion of T3 and T4? TSH – thyroid stimulating hormone What is the function of calcitonin? causes CA to be released into blood Ovary The ovary is an organ that serves both an exocrine function in producing eggs (ova) and an endocrine function in secreting the hormones estrogen and progesterone. Click slide 2. Grossly, the ovary is divided into a peripherally located cortex in which the oocytes (precursors to the ovulated egg) develop and a central medulla in which connective tissue surrounds blood vessels, lymphatic vessels and nerves. The oocytes, together with supporting cells (granulosa cells), form the ovarian follicles seen in the cortex at various stages of development. Click slide 3. As an individual oocyte grows, granulosa cells proliferate from a single layer of cuboidal cells that surround the oocyte to a multicellular layer that defines a fluid-filled spherical follicle. In a mature follicle (Graafian follicle), the granulosa cells are displaced to the periphery of the fluid-filled 126 Histology Review Supplement endometrium What is the function of the deep basal layer (stratum basalis) of the endometrium? regenerate new superficial layer What composes a serosa? perimetrium How does the serosa of the uterus, where present, differ from visceral peritoneum? location Pancreas The pancreas is both an endocrine and an exocrine gland. Click slide 7. The exocrine portion is characterized by glandular secretory units (acini) formed by a simple epithelium of triangular or pyramidal cells that encircle a small central lumen. The central lumen is the direct connection to the duct system that conveys the exocrine secretions out of the gland. Scattered among the exocrine secretory units are the pale-staining clusters of cells that compose the endocrine portion of the gland. The cells that form these clusters, called pancreatic islet cells (islets of Langerhans), secrete a number of hormones, including insulin and glucagon. Do the pancreatic islets secrete their hormones into the same duct system used by the exocrine secretory cells? no, but directly into blood stream Histology Review Supplement 127 Cardiovascular Tissue Review From the PhysioEx main menu, select Histology Review Supplement. When the screen comes up, click Select an Image Group. From Group Listing, click Cardiovascular Tissue Slides. To view slides without labels, click the Labels Off button at the bottom right of the monitor. Which component of the intercalated disc is a junction that provides the intercellular communication required for the myocardium to perform as a functional syncytium? gap juntions Blood Vessels Blood vessels form a system of conduits through which lifesustaining blood is conveyed from the heart to all parts of the body and back to the heart again. Click slide 3. Generally, the wall of every vessel is described as being composed of three layers, or tunics. The tunica intima, or tunica interna, a simple squamous endothelium and a small amount of subjacent loose connective tissue, is the innermost layer adjacent to the vessel lumen. Smooth muscle and elastin are the predominant constituents of the middle tunica media, and the outermost tunica adventitia, or tunica externa, is a connective tissue layer of variable thickness that provides support and transmits smaller blood and lymphatic vessels and nerves. The thickness of each tunic varies widely with location and function of the vessel. Arteries, subjected to considerable pressure fluctuations, have thicker walls overall, with the tunica media being thicker than the tunica adventitia. Veins, in contrast, are subjected to much lower pressures and have thinner walls overall, with the tunica adventitia often outsizing the tunica media. Because thin-walled veins conduct blood back to the heart against gravity, valves (not present in arteries) also are present at intervals to prevent backflow. In capillaries, where exchange occurs between the blood and tissues, the tunica intima alone composes the vessel wall. The tunica media of the aorta would have a much greater proportion of what type of tissue than a small artery? Heart The heart is a four-chambered muscular pump. Although its wall can be divided into three distinct histological layers (endocardium, myocardium, and epicardium), the cardiac muscle of the myocardium composes the bulk of the heart wall. Click slide 1. Contractile cardiac muscle cells (myocytes, myofibers) have the same striated appearance as skeletal muscle, but are branched rather than cylindrical in shape and have one (occasionally two) nucleus (myonucleus) rather than many. The cytoplasmic striations represent the same organization of myofilaments (sarcomeres) and alignment of sarcomeres as in skeletal muscle, and the mechanism of contraction is the same. The intercalated disc, however, is a feature unique to cardiac muscle. The densely stained structure is a complex of intercellular junctions (desmosomes, gap junctions, fasciae adherens) that structurally and functionally link cardiac muscle cells end to end. A second population of cells in the myocardium composes the noncontractile intrinsic conduction system (nodal system). Although cardiac muscle is autorhythmic, meaning it has the ability to contract involuntarily in the absence of extrinsic innervation provided by the nervous system, it is the intrinsic conduction system that prescribes the rate and orderly sequence of contraction. Extrinsic innervation only modulates the inherent activity. Click slide 2. Of the various components of the noncontractile intrinsic conduction system, Purkinje fibers are the most readily observed histologically. They are particularly abundant in the ventricular myocardium and are recognized by their very pale-staining cytoplasm and larger diameter. The connective tissue component of cardiac muscle is relatively sparse and lacks the organization present in skeletal muscle. Which component of the intercalated disc is a strong intercellular junction that functions to keep cells from being pulled apart during contraction? lastic fiber In general, which vessel would have a larger lumen, an artery or its corresponding vein? vein Why would the tunica media and tunica adventitia not be present in a capillary? to allow material exchange between blood and tissue desmosomes What is a functional syncytium? Because the cardiac muscle cells are mechanically, chemically, and electrically connecte d to one another, the entire tissue resembles a single, enormous muscle cell. 128 Histology Review Supplement Respiratory Tissue Review From the PhysioEx main menu, select Histology Review Supplement. When the screen comes up, click Select an Image Group. From Group Listing, click Respiratory Tissue Slides. To view slides without labels, click the Labels Off button at the bottom right of the monitor. The respiratory system serves both to conduct oxygenated air deep into the lungs and to exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide between the air and the blood. The trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles are the part of the system of airways that conduct air into the lungs. Click slide 2. The trachea and bronchi are similar in morphology. Their lumens are lined by pseudostratified columnar ciliated epithelium with goblet cells (respiratory epithelium), underlain by a connective tissue lamina propria and a deeper connective tissue submucosa with coiled sero-mucous glands that open onto the surface lining of the airway lumen. Click slide 1. Deep to the submucosa are the hyaline cartilage rings that add structure to the wall of the airway and prevent its collapse. Peripheral to the cartilage is a connective tissue adventitia. The sero-mucous glands are also visible in this slide. Click slide 3. The bronchioles, in contrast, are much smaller in diameter with a continuous layer of smooth muscle in place of the cartilaginous reinforcements. A gradual decrease in the height of the epithelium to simple columnar also occurs as the bronchioles decrease in diameter. Distally the bronchioles give way to the respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs, and alveoli in which gas exchange occurs. In the respiratory bronchiole, the epithelium becomes simple cuboidal and the continuous smooth muscle layer is interrupted at intervals by the presence of alveoli inserted into the bronchiolar wall. Click slide 4. Although some exchange occurs in the respiratory bronchiole, it is within the alveoli of the alveolar ducts and sacs that the preponderance of gas exchange transpires. Here the walls of the alveoli, devoid of smooth muscle, are reduced in thickness to the thinnest possible juxtaposition of simple squamous alveolar cell to simple squamous capillary endothelial cell. What are the primary functions of the respiratory epithelium? What is the primary functional unit of the lung? alveoli The alveolar wall is very delicate and subject to collapse. Why is there no smooth muscle present in its wall for support? smooth muscle would hinder the gas exchange What are the three basic components of the air-blood barrier? alveolar, capillary walls and basal laminae humidfy, filter and warm incoming air Why doesn’t gas exchange occur in bronchi? bronchi have no alveoli Histology Review Supplement 129 Digestive Tissue Review From the PhysioEx main menu, select Histology Review Supplement. When the screen comes up, click Select an Image Group. From Group Listing, click Digestive Tissue Slides. To view slides without labels, click the Labels Off button at the bottom right of the monitor. smooth muscle nearest the stomach, and a mix of both skeletal and smooth muscle in between. 4. The outermost layer of the esophagus is an adventitia for the portion of the esophagus in the thorax, and a serosa after the esophagus penetrates the diaphragm and enters the abdominal cavity. Click slide 3. Here we can see the abrupt change in epithelium at the gastroesophageal junction, where the esophagus becomes continuous with the stomach. Briefly explain the difference between an adventitia and a serosa. Salivary Gland The digestive process begins in the mouth with the physical breakdown of food by mastication. At the same time salivary gland secretions moisten the food and begin to hydrolyze carbohydrates. The saliva that enters the mouth is a mix of serous secretions and mucus (mucin) produced by the three major pairs of salivary glands. Click slide 1. The secretory units of the salivary tissue shown here are composed predominantly of clusters of pale-staining mucussecreting cells. More darkly stained serous cells cluster to form a demilune (half moon) adjacent to the lumen and contribute a clear fluid to the salivary secretion. Salivary secretions flow to the mouth from the respective glands through a well-developed duct system. Are salivary glands endocrine or exocrine glands? serosa secret serous fluid, and adventitia don't. Stomach The wall of the stomach has the same basic four-layered organization as that of the esophagus. Click slide 4. The mucosa of the stomach consists of a simple columnar epithelium, a thin connective tissue lamina propria, and a thin muscularis mucosa. The most significant feature of the stomach mucosa is that the epithelium invaginates deeply into the lamina propria to form superficial gastric pits and deeper gastric glands. Although the epithelium of the stomach is composed of a variety of cell types, each with a unique and important function, only three are mentioned here (see slide 5). Click slide 5. The surface mucous cells are simple columnar cells that line the gastric pits and secrete mucus continuously onto the surface of the epithelium. The large round pink- to red-stained parietal cells that secrete hydrochloric acid (HCl) line the upper half of the gastric glands; more abundant in the lower half of the gastric glands are the chief cells (not shown), usually stained blue, that secrete pepsinogen (a precursor to pepsin). Click slide 4. The submucosa is similar to that of the esophagus but without glands. The muscularis externa has the two typical circumferential and longitudinal layers of smooth muscle, plus an extra layer of smooth muscle oriented obliquely. The stomach’s outermost layer is a serosa. What is the function of the mucus secreted by surface mucous cells? exocrine Which salivary secretion, mucous or serous, is more thin and watery in consistency? serous Esophagus Through contractions of its muscular wall (peristalsis), the esophagus propels food from the mouth to the stomach. Four major layers are apparent when the wall of the esophagus is cut in transverse section: Click slide 2. 1. The mucosa adjacent to the lumen consists of a nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium, its immediately subjacent connective tissue (lamina propria) containing blood vessels, nerves, lymphatic vessels, and cells of the immune system, and a thin smooth muscle layer (muscularis mucosa) forms the boundary between the mucosa and the submucosa. Because this slide is a low magnification view, it is not possible to discern all parts of the mucosa nor the boundary between it and the submucosa. 2. The submucosa is a layer of connective tissue of variable density, traversed by larger caliber vessels and nerves, that houses the mucus-secreting esophageal glands whose secretions protect the epithelium and further lubricate the passing food bolus. 3. Much of the substance of the esophageal wall consists of both circumferentially and longitudinally oriented layers of muscle called the muscularis externa. The muscularis externa is composed of skeletal muscle nearest the mouth, 130 Histology Review Supplement protects the epithelium Small Intestine The key to understanding the histology of the small intestine lies in knowing that its major function is absorption. To that end, its absorptive surface area has been amplified greatly in the following ways: 1. The mucosa and submucosa are thrown into permanent folds (plicae circulares). 2. Fingerlike extensions of the lamina propria form villi (singular: villus) that protrude into the intestinal lumen (click slide 7). 3. The individual simple columnar epithelial cells (enterocytes) that cover the villi have microvilli (a brush border), tiny projections of apical plasma membrane to increase their absorptive surface area (click slide 6). Click slide 7. Although all three segments of the small intestine (duodenum, jejunum, and ileum) possess villi and tubular crypts of Lieberkuhn that project deep into the mucosa between villi, some unique features are present in particular segments. For example, large mucous glands (duodenal glands, Brunner’s glands) are present in the submucosa of the duodenum. In addition, permanent aggregates of lymphatic tissue (Peyer’s patches) are a unique characteristic of the ileum (click slide 8). Aside from these specific features and the fact that the height of the villi vary from quite tall in the duodenum to fairly short in the terminal ileum, the overall morphology of mucosa, submucosa, muscularis externa, and serosa is quite similar in all three segments. Why is it important for the duodenum to add large quantities of mucus (from the duodenal glands) to the partially digested food entering it from the stomach? Click slide 10. Located in the surrounding connective tissue, roughly at the points of the hexagon where three lobules meet, is the portal triad (portal canal). Click slide 12. The three constituents of the portal triad include a branch of the hepatic artery, a branch of the hepatic portal vein, and a bile duct. Both the hepatic artery and portal vein empty their oxygen-rich blood and nutrient-rich blood, respectively, into the sinusoids. This blood mixes in the sinusoids and flows centrally in between and around the hepatocytes toward the central vein. Bile, produced by hepatocytes, is secreted into very small channels (bile canaliculi) and flows peripherally (away from the central vein) to the bile duct. Thus, the flow of blood is from peripheral to central in a hepatic lobule, while the bile flow is from central to peripheral. What general type of cell is the phagocytic Kupffer cell? immune Blood in the portal vein flows directly from what organs? liver What is the function of bile in the digestive process? protects intestinal walls raises alkalinity to create ideal pH Colon Click slide 9. The four-layered organization is maintained in the wall of the colon, but the colon has no villi, only crypts of Lieberkuhn. Simple columnar epithelial cells (enterocytes with microvilli) are present to absorb water from the digested food mass, and the numbers of mucous goblet cells are increased substantially, especially toward the distal end of the colon. Why is it important to have an abundance of mucous goblet cells in the colon? because they secrete mucous, which is important to fascilitate degestion Pancreas Click slide 13. The exocrine portion of the pancreas synthesizes and secretes pancreatic enzymes. The individual exocrine secretory unit, or acinus, is formed by a group of pyramidal-shaped pancreatic acinar cells clustered around a central lumen into which they secrete their products. A system of pancreatic ducts then transports the enzymes to the duodenum where they are added to the lumen contents to further aid digestion. The groups of pale-staining cells are the endocrine pancreatic islet (islets of Langerhans) cells. Liver The functional tissue of the liver is organized into hexagonally shaped cylindrical lobules, each delineated by connective tissue. Click slide 11. Within the lobule, large rounded hepatocytes form linear cords that radiate peripherally from the center of the lobule at the central vein to the surrounding connective tissue. Blood sinusoids lined by simple squamous endothelial cells and darkly stained phagocytic Kupffer cells are interposed between cords of hepatocytes in the same radiating pattern. Histology Review Supplement 131 Renal Tissue Review From the PhysioEx main menu, select Histology Review Supplement. When the screen comes up, click Select an Image Group. From Group Listing, click Renal Tissue Slides. To view slides without labels, click the Labels Off button at the bottom right of the monitor. The many functions of the kidney include filtration, absorption, and secretion. The kidney filters the blood of metabolic wastes, water, and electrolytes and reabsorbs most of the water and sodium ions filtered to regulate and maintain the body’s fluid volume and electrolyte balance. The kidney also plays an endocrine role in secreting compounds that increase blood pressure and stimulate red blood cell production. The uriniferous tubule is the functional unit of the kidney. It consists of two components: the nephron to filter and the collecting tubules and ducts to carry away the filtrate. Click slide 1. The nephron itself consists of the renal corpuscle, an intimate association of the glomerular capillaries (glomerulus) with the cup-shaped Bowman’s capsule, and a single elongated renal tubule consisting of segments regionally and sequentially named the proximal convoluted tubule (PCT), the descending and ascending segments of the loop of Henle, and the distal convoluted tubule (DCT). Click slide 2. A closer look at the renal corpuscle shows both the simple squamous epithelium of the outer layer (parietal layer) of the glomerular capsule (Bowman’s capsule) and the specialized inner layer (visceral layer) of podocytes that extend footlike processes to completely envelop the capillaries of the renal glomerulus. Processes of adjacent podocytes interdigitate with one another, leaving only small slits (filtration slits) between the processes through which fluid from the blood is filtered. The filtrate then flows into the urinary space that is directly continuous with the first segment of the renal tubule, the PCT. The PCT is lined by robust cuboidal cells equipped with microvilli to greatly increase the surface area of the side of the cell facing the lumen. Click slide 3. In the loop of Henle, lining cells are simple squamous to simple cuboidal. The DCT cells are also simple cuboidal but are usually much smaller than those of the PCT. The sparse distribution of microvilli, if present at all, on the cells of the DCT relates to their lesser role in absorption. The DCT is continuous directly with the collecting tubules and collecting ducts that drain the filtrate out of the kidney. The large renal artery and its many subdivisions provide an abundant blood supply to the kidney. The smallest distal branches of the renal artery become the afferent arterioles that directly supply the capillaries of the glomerulus. In a unique situation, blood from the glomerular capillaries passes into the efferent arteriole rather than into a venule. The efferent arteriole then perfuses two more capillary beds, the peritubular capillary bed and vasa recta that provide nutrient blood to the kidney tissue itself, before ultimately draining into the renal venous system. In which segment of the renal tubule does roughly 75–80% of reabsorption occur? proximal convoluted tubules How are proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) cells similar to enterocytes of the small intestine? both absorb water, salts, vitamins, phosphates Starting from inside the glomerular capillary through to the urinary space, what are the three layers through which the filtrate must pass? glomerular capillary enothelium, glomrular basement membrane visceral layer of bowman's capsule Under normal circumstances in a healthy individual, would red blood cells or any other cells be present in the renal filtrate? no In addition to providing nutrients to the kidney tubules, what is one other function of the capillaries in the peritubular capillary bed? they deliver blood to tubular sites 132 Histology Review Supplement